« Back Advances in Anesthesia

Article in Press

Anesthetic Considerations for Nonobstetric Surgery During Pregnancy

Published online 10 June 2011 Corrected Proof

References 

  1. Goodman S. Anesthesia for nonobstetric surgery in the pregnant patient. Semin Perinatol. 2002;26:136–145
  2. Kuczkowski K. Nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy: what are the risks of anesthesia?. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2004;59:52–56
  3. Moore KL. Before we are born: basic embryology and birth defects. 2nd edition. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 1977;
  4. Heionen O, Slone D, Shapiro S. Birth defects and drugs in pregnancy. Littleton (Massachusetts): Publishing Sciences Group; 1977;
  5. Fink B, Shepard T, Blandau R. Teratogenic activity of nitrous oxide. Nature. 1967;214:146–148
  6. Lane G, Nahrwold M, Tait A, et al. Nitrous oxide is fetotoxic, xenon is not. Science. 1980;210:899–901
  7. Mazze R, Wilson A, Rice S, et al. Reproduction and fetal development in rats exposed to nitrous oxide. Teratology. 1984;30:2259–2265
  8. Mazze R, Wilson A, Rice S, et al. Reproduction and fetal development in mice chronically exposed to nitrous oxide. Teratology. 1982;26:11–16
  9. Shah R, Burdett D, Donaldson D. The effects of nitrous oxide on the developing hamster embryos. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1977;24:361–370
  10. Wharton R, Mazze R, Baden B, et al. Reproduction and fetal development in mice chronically exposed to halothane. Anesthesiology. 1978;49:167–174
  11. Wharton R, Wilson A, Mazze R, et al. Fetal morphology in mice exposed to halothane. Anesthesiology. 1979;51:532–537
  12. Bashford A, Fink B. The teratogenicity of halothane in the rat. Anesthesiology. 1968;29:1167–1173
  13. Kennedy G, Smith S, Keplinger M, et al. Reproductive and teratogenic studies with halothane. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1976;35:467–474
  14. Mazze R, Fujinage M, Rice S, et al. Reproductive and teratogenic effects of nitrous oxide, halothane, isoflurane and enflurane in Sprague-Dawley rats. Anesthesiology. 1986;64:339–344
  15. Wharton R, Mazze R, Wilson A. Reproductive and fetal development in mice chronically exposed to enflurane. Anesthesiology. 1981;51:505–510
  16. Mazze R, Wilson A, et al. Fetal development in mice exposed to isoflurane. Teratology. 1985;32:339–345
  17. Physician's desk reference. Montvale (NJ): Thomson Healthcare; 2005;
  18. In:  Klasco RK editors. Drugdex system. Greenwood Village (Colorado): Thomson Micromedex; 2006;
  19. El-Karin A, Benny R. Embryotoxic and teratogenic effects of ketamine hydrochloride in rats. Ain Shavis Med J. 1975;27:459–463
  20. Product information. Diprivan. Wilmington (DE): AstraZeneca; 2000.
  21. Geber W, Schramm L. Congenital malformations of the central nervous system produced by narcotic analgesics in the hamster. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1975;123:705–713
  22. Fuginawa M, Stevenson J, Mazze R. Reproductive and teratogenic effects of fentanyl in Sprague-Dawley rats. Teratology. 1986;34:51–57
  23. Wee EL, Zimmerman EF. Involvement of GABA in palate morphogenesis and its relation to diazepam teratogenesis in two mouse strains. Teratology. 1983;1:15–22
  24. Szxen I, Xasen L. Association between maternal intake of diazepam and oral clefts. Lancet. 1975;2:498
  25. Safra M, Oakley G. Association between cleft lip with or without cleft palate and prenatal exposure to diazepam. Lancet. 1975;2:478–480
  26. Hartz S, Heinomen O, Shapiro S, et al. Antenatal exposure to meprobamate and chlorodiazepoxide in relation to malformations, mental development and childhood mortality. N Engl J Med. 1975;292:726–728
  27. Bonnot O, Vollset SE, Godet PF, et al. In utero exposure to benzodiazepine. Is there a risk for anal atresia with lorazepam?. Encephale. 2003;29:553–559
  28. Chesnutt A. Physiology of normal pregnancy. Crit Care Clin. 2004;20:609–615
  29. Clark S, Cotton D, Lee W, et al. Central hemodynamic assessment of normal term pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;161:1439–1442
  30. Robson S, Hunter S, Boys R, et al. Haemodynamic changes during the puerperium: a Doppler and M-mode echocardiographic study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1987;94:1028–1039
  31. Kerr MG, Scott DB, Samuel E. Studies of the inferior vena cava in late pregnancy. BMJ. 1964;1:532–533
  32. Kerr MG. The mechanical effects of the gravid uterus in late pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw. 1965;72:513–529
  33. James FM, Greiss FC, Kemp RA. An evaluation of vasopressor therapy for maternal hypotension during spinal anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1970;33:25–34
  34. Ralston DH, Shnider SM, deLormier AA. Effects of equipotent ephedrine metaraminol, mephenteramine and methoxamine on uterine blood flow in the pregnant ewe. Anesthesiology. 1974;40:354–370
  35. Ramanathan S, Grant GJ. Vasopressor therapy for hypotension due to epidural anesthesia for cesarean section. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1988;32:559–565
  36. Lee Am Ngan Kee WD, Ginn T. A quantitative systematic review of randomized controlled trials of ephedrine versus phenylephrine for the management of hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg. 2002;94:920–926
  37. Cooper DW, Carpenter M, Mowbray P, et al. Fetal and maternal effects of phenylephrine and ephedrine during spinal anesthesia for Cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology. 2002;97:1582–1590
  38. Thomas DG, Robson SC, Redfern N, et al. Randomized trial of bolus phenylephrine or ephedrine for maintenance of arterial pressure during spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section. Br J Anaesth. 1996;76:62–65
  39. Gournay VA, Roman C, Rudolph AM. Effect of beta-adrenergic stimulation on oxygen metabolism in the fetal lamb. Pediatr Res. 1999;45:432–436
  40. Cooper DW. Ephedrine, phenylephrine and fetal acidosis. Anaesthesia. 2005;60:1237–1238
  41. Carruth JE, Mirvis SB, Brogan DR, et al. The electrocardiogram in normal pregnancy. Am Heart J. 1981;102:1075–1078
  42. Oram S, Holt M. Innocent depression of the S-T segment and flattening of the T-wave during pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Commonw. 1961;68:765–770
  43. Carr FB, Hamilton BE, Palmer RS. The significance of large Q in lead III of the electrocardiogram in pregnancy. Am Heart J. 1933;8:519
  44. Mendelson C. The aspiration of stomach contents into the lungs during obstetric anesthesia. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1946;52:191–206
  45. Carp H, Jayaram A, Stoll M. Ultrasound examination of the stomach contents of parturients. Anesth Analg. 1992;74:683–687
  46. Maes BD, Spitz B, Ghoos YF, et al. Gastric emptying in hyperemesis gravidarum and non-dyspeptic pregnancy. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1999;13:237–243
  47. Sandhar BK, Elliott RH, Windram I, et al. Peripartum changes in gastric emptying. Anaesthesia. 1992;47:196–198
  48. O'Sullivan GM, Sutton AJ, Thompson SA, et al. Noninvasive measurement of gastric emptying in obstetric patients. Anesth Analg. 1987;66:505–511
  49. O'Sullivan G. Gastric emptying during pregnancy and puerperium. Int J Obstet Anesth. 1993;2:216–224
  50. Murphy DB, Sutton JA, Prescott LF, et al. Opioid-induced delay in gastric emptying: a peripheral mechanism in humans. Anesthesiology. 1997;87:765–770
  51. Wright PM, Allen RW, Moore J, et al. Gastric emptying during lumbar extradural analgesia in labour: effect of fentanyl supplementation. Br J Anaesth. 1992;68:248–251
  52. Nimmo WS, Wilson J, Prescott LF. Narcotic analgesics and delayed gastric emptying during labour. Lancet. 1975;19:890–893
  53. Richter J. Gastroesphageal reflux disease during pregnancy. Gastroenterol Clin North Am. 2003;32:235–261
  54. Lim SK, Elegbe EO. The use of single dose of sodium citrate as a prophylaxis against acid aspiration syndrome in obstetric patients undergoing caesarean section. Med J Malaysia. 1991;46:349–355
  55. Abboud TK, Curtis J, Henriksen THE, et al. Efficacy of clear antacid prophylaxis in obstetrics. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1984;28:301–304
  56. Eyler SW, Cullen BF, Murphy ME, et al. Antacid aspiration in rabbits: a comparison of Mylanta and Bicitra. Anesth Analg. 1982;61:288–292
  57. Gibbs CP, Schwartz DJ, et al. Antacid pulmonary aspiration in the dog. Anesthesiology. 1979;51:380–385
  58. Shepherd KE, Faulkner CS, Leiter JC. Acute histologic effects of simulated large-volume aspiration of sucralfate into the lungs of rats. Crit Care Med. 1990;18:524–528
  59. Bifarini G, Favetta P, Ciammiti B, et al. Pharmacologic prevention of Mendelson syndrome. A controlled clinical trial. Minerva Anestesiol. 1992;58:95–99
  60. Okasha AS, Motaweh MM, Bali A. Cimetidine—antacid combination as premedication for elective caesarean section. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1983;30:593–597
  61. Murphy DF, Nally B, Gardiner J, et al. Effect of metoclopramide on gastric emptying before elective and emergency caesarean section. Br J Anaesth. 1984;56:1113–1116
  62. Jorgensen NP, Walstad RA, Molne K. The concentrations of ceftazidime and thiopental in maternal plasma, placental tissue and amniotic fluid in early pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1987;66:29–33
  63. Celardo A, Passerini F, Bonati M. Placental transfer and tissue distribution of thiopental in the pregnant rat. J Pharmacokinet Biopharm. 1989;17:425–440
  64. Ellingson A, Haram K, Sagen N, et al. Transplacental passage of ketamine after intravenous administration. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1977;21:41–44
  65. Gregory MA, Davidson DG. Plasma etomidate levels in mother and fetus. Anaesth. 1991;46:716–718
  66. Sanchez-Alcaraz A, Quintana MB, Laguarda M. Placental transfer and neonatal effects of propofol in caesarean section. J Clin Pharm Ther. 1998;23:19–23
  67. Dailland P, Cockshott ID, Lirzin JD, et al. Intravenous propofol during cesarean section: placental transfer, concentrations in breast milk, and neonatal effects. A preliminary study. Anesthesiology. 1989;71:827–834
  68. Alon E, Ball RH, Gillie MH, et al. Effects of propofol and thiopental on maternal and fetal cardiovascular and acid-base variables in the pregnant ewe. Anesthesiology. 1993;78:562–576
  69. Valtonen M, Kanto J, Rosenberg P. Comparison of propofol and thiopentone for induction of anaesthesia for elective caesarean section. Anaesthesia. 1989;44:758–762
  70. Houlton PJ, Downing JW, Buley RJ, et al. Anaesthetic induction for caesarean section with etomidate compared with thiopentone. S Afr Med J. 1978;54:773–775
  71. Siafaka I, Vadalouca A, et al. A comparative study of propofol and thiopental as induction agents for elective caesarean section. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 1992;19:93–96
  72. Abboud TK, Zhu J, Richardson M, et al. Intravenous propofol vs. thiamylal-isoflurane for caesarean section, comparative maternal and neonatal effects. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39:205–209
  73. Dich-Nielsen J, Holasek J. Ketamine as induction agent for caesarean section. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1982;26:139–142
  74. Reddy BK, Pizer B, Bull PT. Neonatal serum cortisol suppression by etomidate compared with thiopentone for elective caesarean section. Eur J Anaesth. 1988;5:171–176
  75. Gin T, Mainland P, Chan MT, et al. Decreased thiopental requirements in early pregnancy. Anesthesiology. 1997;86:73–78
  76. Christensen JH, Andreasen F, Jansen JA. Pharmacokinetics of thiopental in caesarian section. Acta Anaesth Scand. 1981;25:174–179
  77. Higuchi H, Adachi Y, Arimura S, et al. Early pregnancy does not reduce the C50 of propofol for loss of consciousness. Anesth Analg. 2001;93:1565–1569
  78. Craft JB, Coaldrake LA, et al. Placental passage and uterine effects of fentanyl. Anesth Analg. 1983;62:894–898
  79. Kopecky E, Ryan ML, Barrett JFR, et al. Fetal response to maternally administered morphine. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:424–430
  80. Collins LR, Hall RW, Dajani N, et al. Prolonged morphine exposure in utero causes fetal and placental vasoconstriction: s case report. J Mat Fet Neonatal Med. 2005;17:417–421
  81. Smith RP, Miller SL, Igosheva N. Cardiovascular and endocrine responses to cutaneous electrical stimulation after fentanyl in the ovine fetus. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;190:836–842
  82. Sedgwick JA, Schenbeck JL, Eghtesady P. Harmful effects of fentanyl on the fetus and placenta?. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005;193:303–304
  83. Fisk NM, Gitau R, Teixeria JM. Effect of direct fetal opioids analgesia on fetal hormonal and hemodynamic stress response to intrauterine needling. Anesthesiology. 2001;95:828–835
  84. Guinsburg R, Kopelman BI, Anand KJ, et al. Physiological, hormonal and behavioral responses to a single fentanyl dose in intubated and ventilated preterm neonates. J Pediatr. 1998;132:954–959
  85. Munnur U, de Boisblanc B, Suresh M. Airway problems in pregnancy. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:S259–S268
  86. Pilkington S, Carli F, Dakin M, et al. Increase in Mallampati score during pregnancy. Br J Anaesth. 1995;74:638–642
  87. Rocke D, Murray W, Rout C, et al. Relative risk analysis of factors associated with difficult intubation in obstetric anesthesia. Anesthesiology. 1992;77:67–73
  88. Crapo R. Normal cardiopulmonary physiology during pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1996;39:3–16
  89. Pereira A, Krieger B. Pulmonary complications of pregnancy. Clin Chest Med. 2004;25:299–310
  90. Spatling L, Fallenstein F, Huch A, et al. The variability of cardiopulmonary adaptation to pregnancy at rest and during exercise. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1992;99:1–40
  91. Archer GW, Marx GF. Arterial oxygen tension during apnoea in parturient women. Br J Anaesth. 1974;46:358–360
  92. Rurak DW, Cooper CC, Taylor SM. Fetal oxygen consumption and PO2 during hypercapnia in pregnant sheep. J Dev Physiol. 1986;8:447–459
  93. Naughton NN, Cohen SE. Nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy. In:  Chestnut DH editors. Obstetric anesthesia principles and practice. Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby; 2004;p. 263
  94. Carter AM, Gronlund J. Contribution of the Bohr effect to the fall in fetal PO2 caused by maternal alkalosis. J Perinat Med. 1985;13:185–191
  95. Muller G, Huber JC, Salzer H, et al. Maternal hyperventilation as a possible cause of fetal tachycardia sub partu. A clinical and experimental study. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1984;17:270–275
  96. Motoyama EK, Rivard G, Acheson F, et al. The effect of changes in maternal pH and PCO2 on the Po2 of fetal lambs. Anesthesiology. 1967;28:891–903
  97. Palahniuk RJ, Shnider SM, Eger EI. Pregnancy decreases the requirement for inhaled anesthetic agents. Anesthesiology. 1974;41:82–83
  98. Eng M, Bonica JJ, Akamatsu TJ, et al. Maternal and fetal responses to halothane in pregnant monkeys. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1975;19:154–158
  99. Sabik JF, Assad RS, Hanley FL. Halothane as an anesthetic for fetal surgery. J Pediatr Surg. 1993;28:542–546
  100. Palahniuk RJ, Shnider SM. Maternal and fetal cardiovascular and acid-base changes during halothane and isoflurane anesthesia in the pregnant ewe. Anesthesiology. 1974;41:462–472
  101. Bachman CR, Biehl DR, Sitar D, et al. Isoflurane potency and cardiovascular effects during short exposures in the foetal lamb. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1986;33:41–47
  102. Warren TM, Datta S, Ostheimer GW, et al. Comparison of the maternal and neonatal effects of halothane, enflurane and isoflurane for cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg. 1983;62:516–520
  103. Abboud TK, Zhu J, Richardson M, et al. Desflurane: a new volatile anesthetic for cesarean section. Maternal and neonatal effects. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1995;39:723–726
  104. Jirasiritham S, Tantivitayatan K, Sirivararom P. Over half MAC sevoflurane in cesarean section. J Med Assoc Thai. 2005;88:914–920
  105. Pacifici GM, Nottoli R. Placental transfer of drugs administered to the mother. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1995;28:235–269
  106. Cailey PA, Fisher DM, Shnider SM, et al. Pharmacokinetics, placental transfer, and neonatal effects of vecuronium and pancuronium administered during cesarean section. Anesthesiology. 1984;60:569–574
  107. Dailey PA, Fisher DM, Shnider SM, et al. Pharmacokinetics, placental transfer and neonatal effects of vecuronium and pancuronium administered during cesarean section. Anesthesiology. 1984;60:569–574
  108. Abouleish E, Wingard LB, de la Vega S, et al. Pancuronium in caesarean section and its placental transfer. Br J Anaesth. 1980;52:531–536
  109. Guay J, Grenier Y, Varin F. Clinical pharmacokinetics of neuromuscular relaxants in pregnancy. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1998;34:483
  110. Hoefnagel D, Harris NA, Kim TH. Transient respiratory depression of the newborn. Its occurrence after succinylcholine administration to the mother. Am J Dis Child. 1979;133:825–826
  111. Cherala SR, Eddie DN, Sechzer PH. Placental transfer of succinylcholine causing transient respiratory depression in the newborn. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1989;17:202–204
  112. Al-Fozan H, Tulandi T. Safety and risks of laparoscopy in pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2002;14:375–379
  113. Allen JR, Helling TS, Langenfeld M. Intraabdominal surgery during pregnancy. Am J Surg. 1989;158:567–569
  114. Cohen-Kerem R, Railton C, Oren D, et al. Pregnancy outcome following nonobstetric surgical intervention. Am J Surg. 2005;190:465–473
  115. Ueberrueck T, Koch A, Meyer L, et al. Ninety-four appendectomies for suspected acute appendicitis during pregnancy. World J Surg. 2004;28:508–511
  116. Curet M, Allen D, Josloff R, et al. Laparoscopy during pregnancy. Arch Surg. 1996;131:546–550
  117. Amos J, Schorr S, Norman P, et al. Laparoscopic surgery during pregnancy: a word of caution. Am J Surg. 1996;171:435–437
  118. Iwasaka H, Miyakawa H, Yamamoto H, et al. Respiratory mechanics and arterial blood gases during and after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Can J Anaesth. 1996;43:129–133
  119. Nguyen NT, Anderson JT, Budd M, et al. Effects of pneumoperitoneum on intraoperative pulmonary mechanics and gas exchange during laparoscopic gastric bypass. Surg Endosc. 2004;18:64–71
  120. Junter J, Swanstrom L, Thornburg K. Carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum induces fetal acidosis in a pregnant ewe mode. Surg Endosc. 1995;9:272–279
  121. Cruz A, Sutherland L, Duke T, et al. Intraabdominal carbon dioxide insufflation in the pregnant ewe. Anesthesiology. 1996;85:1395–1402
  122. Bhavani-Shankar K, Steinbrook R, Brooks D, et al. Arterial to end-tidal carbon dioxide pressure difference during laparoscopic surgery in pregnancy. Anesthesiology. 2000;93:370–373
  123. Uemura K, McClaine R, de la Fuente S, et al. Maternal insufflation during the second trimester equivalent produces hypercapnia, acidosis and prolonged hypoxia in fetal sheep. Anesthesiology. 2004;101:1332–1338
  124. Sharma KC, Brandstetter RD, Brensilver JM, et al. Cardiopulmonary physiology and pathophysiology as a consequence of laparoscopic surgery. Chest. 1996;110:810–815
  125. Steinbrook RA, Bhavani-Shankar K. Hemodynamics during laparoscopic surgery in pregnancy. Anesth Analg. 2001;93:1570–1571
  126. Oguri H, Taniguchi K, Fukaya T. Gasless laparoscopic management of ovarian cysts during pregnancy. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2005;91:258–259
  127. Iafrati M, Yarnell R, Schwaitzberg S. Gasless laparoscopic cholecystectomy in pregnancy. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1995;5:127–130
  128. Rizzo A. Laparoscopic surgery in pregnancy: long-term follow-up. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech. 2003;13:11–15
  129. Society of American Gastrointestinal Endoscopic Surgeons (SAGES) . Guidelines for laparoscopic surgery during pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 1998;12:189–190
  130. Rollins M, Chan K, Price R. Laparoscopy for appendicitis and cholelithiasis during pregnancy: a new standard of care. Surg Endosc. 2004;18:237–241
  131. Kammerer W. Nonobstetric surgery during pregnancy. Med Clin North Am. 1979;63:1157–1163
  132. Kort B, Katz V, Watson W. The effect of nonobstetric operation during pregnancy. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1993;177:371–376
  133. Schreiber J. Laparoscopic appendectomy in pregnancy. Surg Endosc. 1990;4:100–102
  134. Minne L, Varner D, Burnell A, et al. Laparoscopic vs. open appendectomy. Prospective randomized study of outcomes. Arch Surg. 1997;132:708–711
  135. Peiser JG, Greenberg D. Laparoscopic versus open appendectomy: results of a retrospective comparison in an Israeli hospital. Isr Med Assoc J. 2002;4:91–94
  136. Sauerland S, Lefering R, Neugebauer EA. Laparoscopic vs. open surgery for suspected appendicitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;1:CD001546
  137. Curet M. Special problems in laparoscopic surgery. Previous abdominal surgery, obesity and pregnancy. Surg Clin North Am. 2000;80:1093–1110
  138. Lyass S, Pikarsky A, Eisenberg VH, et al. Is laparoscopic appendectomy safe in pregnant women?. Surg Endosc. 2001;15:377–379
  139. Carver TW, Antevil J, Egan JC, et al. Appendectomy during early pregnancy: what is the preferred surgical approach?. Am Surg. 2005;71:809–812
  140. Wu JM, Chen KH, Lin HF, et al. Laparoscopic appendectomy in pregnancy. J Laparoendosc Adv Surg Tech A. 2005;15:447–450
  141. Graham G, Baxi L, Tharakan T. Laparoscopic cholecystectomy during pregnancy: a case series and review of the literature. Obstet Gynecol Surg. 1998;53:566–574
  142. McKellar D, Anderson C, Boynton C, et al. Cholecystectomy during pregnancy without fetal loss. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1992;174:465–468
  143. Nelson M, Cavaliere R, Sanders R. Cysts in pregnancy discovered by sonography. J Clin Ultrasound. 1986;14:509–512
  144. Hill L, Connors-Beatty D, Nowak A, et al. The role of ultrasonography in the detection and management of adnexal masses during the second and third trimesters of pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1998;179:703–707
  145. Schmeler K, Mayo-Smith W, Peipert J, et al. Adnexal masses in pregnancy: surgery compared with observation. Obstet Gynecol. 2005;105:1098–1103
  146. Sherard G, Hodson C, Williams H, et al. Adnexal masses and pregnancy: a 12-year experience. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189:358–362
  147. Usui R, Minakami H, Kosuge S, et al. A retrospective survey of clinical, pathologic, and prognostic features of adnexal masses operated on during pregnancy. J Obstet Gynaecol Res. 2000;26:89–93
  148. Hess L, Peaceman A, O'Brien W, et al. Adnexal mass occurring with intrauterine pregnancy: report of fifty-four patients requiring laparotomy for definitive management. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1988;158:10129–10134
  149. Moore R, Smith W. Laparoscopic management of adnexal masses in pregnant women. J Reprod Med. 1999;44:97–100
  150. Murad SH, Conklin KA, Tabsh KM, et al. Atropine and glycopyrrolate: hemodynamic effects and placental transfer in the pregnant ewe. Anesth Analg. 1981;60:710–714
  151. Proakis AG, Harris GB. Comparative penetration of glycopyrrolate and atropine across the blood-brain and placental barriers in anesthetized dogs. Anesthesiology. 1978;48:339–344
  152. Abboud T, Raya J, Sadria S, et al. Fetal and maternal cardiovascular effects of atropine and glycopyrrolate. Anesth Analg. 1983;62:426–430
  153. Clark RB, Brown MA, Lattin DL. Neostigmine, atropine and glycopyrrolate: does neostigmine cross the placenta?. Anesthesiology. 1996;84:450–452
  154. James FM. Pharmacology of anesthetics. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1981;24:517
  155. Connolly A, Katz V, Bash K, et al. Trauma and pregnancy. Am J Perinatol. 1997;14:331–336
  156. Weiss H, Songer T, Fabio A. Fetal deaths related to maternal injury. JAMA. 2001;286:1863–1868
  157. Shah K, Simons R, Holbrook T, et al. Trauma in pregnancy: maternal and fetal outcomes. J Trauma. 1998;45:83–86
  158. Melnick D, Wahl W, Dalton V. Management of general surgical problems in the pregnant patient. Am J Surg. 2004;187:170–180
  159. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Research Planning Workshop . Electronic fetal heart rate monitoring: research guidelines for interpretation. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;177:1385–1390
  160. ACOG Practice Bulletin Clinical Management Guidelines for Obstetrician–Gynecologists . Intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring. ACOG practice bulletin number 62. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2005;
  161. Rayburn W, Rathke A, Leuschen MP, et al. Fentanyl citrate analgesia during labor. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;161:202–206
  162. Smith CV, Rayburn WF, Allen KV, et al. Influence of intravenous fentanyl on fetal biophysical parameters during labor. J Mat Fetal Med. 1996;5:89–92
  163. Hill JB, Alexander JM, Sharma SK, et al. A comparison of the effects of epidural and meperidine analgesia during labor on fetal heart rate. Obstet Gynecol. 2003;102:333–337
  164. Kopecky EA, Ryan ML, Barrett JF, et al. Fetal response to maternally administered morphine. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2000;183:424–430
  165. Giannina G, Guzman ER, Yl Lai, et al. Comparison of the effects of meperidine and nalbuphine on intrapartum fetal heart rate tracings. Obstet Gynecol. 1995;86:441–445
  166. Fedorkow DM, Stewart TJ, Parboosingh J. Fetal heart rate changes associated with general anesthesia. Am J Perinatol. 1989;6:287–288
  167. Riznyk L, Fijalkowska M, Przesmycki K. Effects of thiopental and propofol on heart rate variability during fentanyl-based induction of general anesthesia. Pharmacol Rep. 2005;57:128–134
  168. Immer-Bansi A, Immer FF, Henle S, et al. Unnecessary emergency Caesarean section due to silent CTG during anaesthesia. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87:791–793
  169. Horrigan TJ, Villarreal R, Weinstein L. Are obstetrical personnel required for intraoperative fetal monitoring during nonobsteric surgery?. J Perinatol. 1999;19:124–126
  170. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Committee on Obstetric Practice . Nonobstetric surgery in pregnancy. Committee opinion no. 284. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2003;
  171. Gemignaini M, Petrek J, Borgen P. Breast cancer and pregnancy. Surg Clin North Am. 1999;79:1157–1169
  172. Ring A, Smith I, Ellis P. Breast cancer and pregnancy. Ann Oncol. 2005;16f:1855–1860
  173. Kittner S, Stern B, Feeser B, et al. Pregnancy and the risk of stroke. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:768–774
  174. Vougioukas V, Kyroussis G, Glasker S, et al. Neurosurgical interventions during pregnancy and the puerperium: clinical considerations and management. Acta Neurochir (Wien). 2004;146:1287–1291
  175. Mrinalini B, Pirjo HM. Craniotomy for suprasellar meningioma in a 28-week pregnant woman, without fetal heart rate monitoring. Can J Anesth. 2004;51:573–576
  176. Giannini A, Bricchi M. Posterior fossa surgery in the sitting position in a pregnant patient with cerebellopontine angle meningioma. Br J Anaesth. 1999;82:941–944
  177. Tuncali B, Aksun M, Katircioglu K, et al. Intraoperative fetal heart rate monitoring during emergency neurosurgery in a parturient. J Anesth. 2006;20:40–43
  178. Van Buul BJ, Nijhuis JG, Slappendel R, et al. General anesthesia for surgical repair of an intracranial aneurysm in pregnancy: effects on fetal heart rate. Am J Perinatol. 1993;10:183–186
  179. Barnel JM, Miralles PJ. Cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass during pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 1986;41:1–6
  180. Vaska P. Cardiac surgery in special populations, part 2: women, pregnant patients, and Jehovah Witnesses. AACN Clin Issues. 1997;8:59–66
  181. Arnoni R, Arnoni A, Bonini R, et al. Risk factors associated with cardiac surgery during pregnancy. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;76:1605–1608
  182. Pomini F, Mercogliano D, Cavalletti C, et al. Cariopulmonary bypass in pregnancy. Ann Thorac Surg. 1996;61:259–268
  183. Jahangiri M, Clarke J, Prefumo F, et al. Cardiac surgery during pregnancy: pulsatile or nonpulsatile perfusion?. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003;126:894–895
  184. Thorsen M, Poole J. Renal disease in pregnancy. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs. 2002;15:13–26
  185. Chestnutt A. Physiology of normal pregnancy. Crit Care Clin. 2004;20:609–615

PII: S0737-6146(06)00002-5

doi: 10.1016/j.aan.2006.06.001

« Back Advances in Anesthesia

Article in Press